Assessment of soil impacts from lead release by lead-halide perovskite solar cells based on outdoor leaching tests

Perovskite solar cells represent a promising technology in the photovoltaic industry due to their high power conversion efficiency, potential for cost-effective manufacturing and versatile applications. The most stable and efficient perovskites to date rely on lead (Pb), raising concerns about leaching into the environment; however Pb release so far has only been quantified under laboratory conditions, and no field-based assessment under real outdoor expsosure has yet evaluated this risk. The present study quantified Pb leaching from various metal-halide perovskite compositions, device stacks and encapsulation approaches in a rooftop installation for up to 9 months. Pb leaching was low across all tested configurations, even in intentionally damaged materials. Glass–glass encapsulated tandem devices shattered by hail and plastic-encapsulated samples damaged by 100 µm pinholes released only 0.07% ± 0.01% and 0.15% ± 0.14% of their initial Pb, respectively, likely due to the slow diffusion of Pb cations in water. The highest leaching (4.81% ± 0.02%) occurred in unlaminated laboratory devices, demonstrating the importance of proper lamination. A self-developed freeware web tool was used to calculate predicted soil concentrations and evaluate potential impacts. Even for unlaminated devices, concentrations would only slightly exceed natural background levels (5.6 mg kg⁻¹ increase), with negligible effects on soil fertility. A hypothetical worst-case scenario assuming a 1000 nm thick perovskite layer and complete Pb leaching onto a narrow strip of soil predicted a negative impact on soil fertility; however remediation would still not be required under Swiss environmental regulations. Overall, current industry-standard encapsulation limits Pb leaching to levels that almost completely mitigate negative impacts on soil health.