Batteries From Reused, Recycled, and Surplus Materials

The integration of reused batteries, reconditioned components, and recycled or surplus materials into current and next-generation energy storage technologies is increasingly driven by environmental concerns, resource scarcity, regulatory pressures, and economic incentives. While the volume of end-of-life batteries available for recycling remains insufficient to meet rapidly rising demand, secondary feedstocks from outside the battery sector, including biomass-derived resources and residues from metallurgy, electronics, and oil refining, are increasingly viewed as complementary supply options. However, their deployment is constrained by the ability to meet battery-grade purity specifications, which are chemistry-dependent and strongly influence process feasibility and cost. This review summarizes recent progress, persistent bottlenecks, and practical strategies to build a more resilient and sustainable battery materials supply chain. We survey repurposing, refurbishment, and recycling approaches across material, component, cell, and pack levels; assess alternative feedstock routes; and discuss sustainable-by-design principles, economic and environmental impacts, regulatory drivers, life-cycle assessment, recycling viability, and traceability tools such as the battery passport. Together, these perspectives outline actionable pathways to accelerate circular, scalable, and compliant battery manufacturing.